July 2009

Adipic Acid
Calcium Chloride
Hydrochloric Acid
Lime/Limestone
Low-Density Polyethylene Resins
Methanol
Propylene
Ammonia from Natural Gas by the Lurgi-Casale MEGAMMONIA Process
Asahi Kasei Diphenyl Carbonate Process Involving the Production and Use of
   Dibutyl Carbonate
Liquid Phase Methanol
Antioxidants
Chemweek's Business Daily
CEH Reports and Product Reviews in Preparation
PEP Reports Scheduled for 2009
SCUP Reports Scheduled for 2009

CEH Marketing Research Report Abstract
ADIPIC ACID
By Sean Davis with Hiroaki Mori

The major markets for adipic acid include its use as a feedstock for nylon 66 fibers and resins, polyester polyols and plasticizers. In 2008, global demand for adipic acid had decreased 7.6% since 2005.

The following pie chart shows world consumption of adipic acid:

In 2008, nylon 66 fiber and engineering resins accounted for 58% of total adipic acid consumption. These markets are almost entirely captive, with INVISTA and Solutia dominating the markets in North America; Rhodia, INVISTA and BASF are the top producers in Western Europe, and Asahi Kasei dominates the Japanese market. Globally, the polyester polyol and plasticizer markets account for 25% and 3%, respectively, of total adipic acid consumption.

Over the past few years, adipic acid has seen record raw material and energy costs cut into price margins and hamper demand growth in end markets. For North America, Western Europe and Japan, demand growth will be low to declining as sluggish automotive, housing and construction markets only slightly improve in 2009. Reduced operating rates and capacity reductions will compensate in the short and long term for slowed markets in North America and oversupply in Western Europe.

China is expected to exhibit the fastest demand growth in the world, driving total Other Asian consumption growth through 2013. Use in the production of nylon polymers as well as polyester polyols, which are used in hot-melt adhesives for shoe soles and other products, has grown swiftly over the past five years, outpacing supply. Chinese imports of adipic acid increased between 2003 and 2007 but with the slowed global economy, imports decreased in 2008. Trade should increase as the economy improves, but will show declines as new capacity comes on stream over the next few years. Demand growth is forecast to be positive in most other regions but on a much smaller scale.

(For the complete marketing research report on ADIPIC ACID, visit this report’s home page or see p. 608.5000 A of the Chemical Economics Handbook.)

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CEH Product Review Abstract
CALCIUM CHLORIDE
By Stefan Schlag with Takashi Kumamoto

Calcium chloride (CaCl₂) is a salt, appearing as a white crystal. It is commercially available as anhydrous and dihydrate flakes, pellets and powder, or as a 30–45% solution. Calcium chloride is produced by refining naturally occurring brine, by neutralizing hydrochloric acid with limestone or as a by-product in the Solvay process of synthetic sodium carbonate (soda ash) production. The major applications for calcium chloride include road deicing, dust control, and in oil extraction and completion fluids.

Total consumption of calcium chloride is expected to slightly increase in the 2008–2013 period, mostly as a result of expected increases in the oil recovery segment, as well as increasing use in dust control and other industrial applications in Asia.

With current high energy prices continuing for the foreseeable future, it is most economical to produce calcium chloride using starting material from brine wells. Production through HCl neutralization of limestone bears the risk of an insecure supply of HCl and its rising price level, whereas by-product CaCl₂ from the Solvay process needs purification steps as well as comparably high levels of heat to concentrate the solution to useful levels.

(For the complete product review on CALCIUM CHLORIDE, visit this report’s home page or see p. 733.5000 A of the Chemical Economics Handbook.)

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CEH Marketing Research Report Abstract
HYDROCHLORIC ACID
By James Glauser, Stefan Schlag and Chiyo Funada

Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is produced in anhydrous form and as a solution containing 65–69% water. Typically, anhydrous HCl is produced as a coproduct of organic chlorination reactions, while muriatic (liquid) HCl can be produced synthetically by burner or as a coproduct. Most anhydrous HCl is generated and consumed captively on site or by pipeline from the manufacture of vinyl chloride monomer from oxychlorination of ethylene dichloride. Other large anhydrous HCl–producing applications include production of chlorinated methanes and ethanes, the isocyanates TDI and MDI, and fluorocarbons. About forty processes generate HCl as a coproduct and about 110 chemical manufacturing processes utilize hydrochloric acid as a raw material.

Hydrochloric acid is an integral part of the worldwide chlorine industry. Most of the HCl produced in the United States, Western Europe and Japan is generated as a by-product in the manufacture of a wide variety of organic chemicals via chlorination reactions. This supply depends largely on demand for the primary products. A significant amount of by-product HCl is generated when ethylene dichloride (EDC) is cracked to make vinyl chloride monomer (VCM). This HCl is usually recycled back to the EDC reactor for additional oxychlorination and for the most part does not enter the commercial market. Similarly, most of the HCl generated in the production of chlorinated C₁s (primarily methylene chloride and chloroform) is recycled to produce additional methyl chloride. By-product HCl from isocyanate and fluorocarbon production cannot be as readily recycled because of logistics and/or purity concerns and most is supplied to the merchant market, although this practice is changing.

The following pie chart shows world consumption of hydrochloric acid (100% HCl basis):

International trade in anhydrous HCl is negligible, while trade in muriatic acid is minimal because of transportation costs, the exception being across borders close to production sites. Prices for HCl had been fairly stable, but in recent years have been quite volatile. Production of coproduct HCl has declined, in part because of the economy, leaving shortages of HCl. In the future, increased amounts of burner acid will be produced in some regions to meet demand. Worldwide growth is forecast at slightly over 2% annually during 2008–2013. The Asian market will grow the fastest at 2.6% per year, with China growing at 4.4% annually. In 2008, the largest consuming countries were the United States, Europe (EU 27), and China. These three regions accounted for over 67% of global consumption. Asia (excluding Japan) accounted for nearly 37% of all consumption.

(For the complete marketing research report on HYDROCHLORIC ACID, visit this report’s home page or see p. 733.4000 A of the Chemical Economics Handbook.)

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CEH Marketing Research Report Abstract
LIME/LIMESTONE
By Stefan Schlag with Chiyo Funada

Lime, or calcium oxide (CaO), is derived through the decarbonation of limestone. The primary product of limestone decarbonation is called quicklime; it can be hydrated to form hydrated lime or calcium hydroxide (Ca[OH]₂). The most frequently occurring types of lime are hydraulic lime and quicklime.

Production of lime increased strongly during 2005–2007, spurred by a worldwide production increase in the major consuming industries. The increase slowed dramatically in 2008, as a result of decreasing consumption in the European and North American markets.

With the dramatic increase in Chinese production, the regional breakdown has changed substantially. China was by far the largest producer in 2008, accounting for over 60% of total production. In the developed regions—Europe, North America (the United States and Canada) and Japan—production of lime is a mature industry characterized by many regional producers, each serving its regional markets. There is relatively little world trade, primarily because lime is readily available in all parts of the world and transportation costs can account for a signif­icant portion of the product value.

Consumption had increased until 2007, as a result of worldwide growth in the major consuming industries—steel, soda ash, pulp and paper, refractories, and the construction industry. Growth in the latter segments came mostly from demand growth in developing regions, in particular China. In the United States and Europe, total consumption had been growing moderately.

The following pie chart shows world consumption of lime:

In 2008 consumption decreased in most world regions, except for China and India, where consumption growth only slowed. In 2009, consumption has declined further, and recovery is expected to be slow.

Lime operations have been subject to environmental regulations since the mid-1960s. These regulations have resulted in the closing of a number of installations and kilns that could not economically comply with the restrictions, especially regarding the particulate emissions released during processing operations. In many cases, the cost of building new, more efficient installations has been prohibitive.

In the United States, the lime industry produces large amounts of by-product lime kiln dust (LKD), primarily from the operation of rotary kilns. At current production levels, the lime industry produces an estimated 3 million metric tons of LKD per year, which must be collected by dust control systems. Potential markets for LKD include agricultural liming, acid neutralization, road and soil stabilization, and use as a supplemental source of calcium for Portland cement manufacturing.

Lime production also generates large volumes of carbon dioxide, which, because of its relatively low concentration, generally cannot be economically recovered. Furthermore, the lime industry is increasingly challenged to minimize air, water and noise pollution. In 2003 the National Lime Association signed an agreement with the U.S. Department of Energy to voluntarily reduce carbon dioxide emissions intensity by 8% between 2002 and 2012. As the lime industry cannot reduce emissions from the calcination of limestone, the agreement focused on achieving energy-related reductions.

(For the complete marketing research report on LIME/LIMESTONE, visit this report’s home page or see p. 746.1000 A of the Chemical Economics Handbook.)

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CEH Marketing Research Report Abstract
LOW-DENSITY POLYETHYLENE RESINS
By Andrea V. Borruso

This report reviews the low-density polyethylene (LDPE) homopolymer and copolymer industry with 2008 as the base year. A global market review replaces the traditional regional focus on the developed economies such as North America, Japan and Western Europe. Historical supply, demand and price data are presented together with quantification of the major end-use markets. Detailed analyses by country are available through SRI Consulting’s World Petrochemicals Program. Ethylene–vinyl acetate (EVA) copolymers, with vinyl acetate monomer (VAM) concentrations of up to 7%, are considered part of the LDPE market.

LDPE has lost its importance in volume terms as linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) demand has increased. In 2008, LDPE demand was approximately 44% of total LDPE plus LLDPE global demand. World LDPE capacity is projected to increase at an average rate of 3.9% per year through 2013, while consumption is expected to increase at an average rate of only 1.9% per year during the same time period. This imbalance of growth rates will lead to a decline in utilization rates unless extensive shutdowns of older and less competitive capacity are implemented. Mergers, acquisitions and restructuring of companies and polyethylene production lines in the last two years have substantially rearranged the ranking of the top ten global LDPE producers.

Demand for LDPE homopolymer and copolymers has remained relatively strong for most of the past five years. Significant price premiums have been sustained for these resins, especially in North America. Despite advanced product maturity, the most favorable scenario for global LDPE consumption through 2013 calls for an increase in the average annual growth rate.

The following pie chart shows world consumption of LDPE:

Film applications are by far the largest market for LDPE, accounting for about 55% of world consumption in 2008. Film demand is split between packaging and nonpackaging uses; packaging applications account for 60–77% of film use, depending on market development. Typical applications for food packaging include baked goods, dairy products, frozen food, produce, meat and poultry, candy and cookies. Nonfood packaging includes industrial liners, heavy-duty sacks, multiwall sack liners, pallet stretch- and shrinkwrap, bundling and overwrap, grocery sacks, merchandise bags and garment bags. Typical nonpackaging uses include household wrap and bags, garbage bags, industrial sheeting and rollstock, agricultural film and disposable diaper backing.

Extrusion coating is the second-largest market for LDPE worldwide, accounting for about 10% of total demand in 2008. Typical applications include the coating of paper and paperboard products for packaging liquids such as milk and juices, the coating of foil to provide a heat-seal layer in multilayer film structures, and the coating of paper and woven cloth to provide a moisture barrier. Extrusion coating continues to be a growth area for LDPE, largely because of innovations in packaging technology. Metallocene LLDPE is now blended with LDPE and coextruded in the multilayer film barrier used in drink carton packaging.

While consumption growth of LDPE has been rather strong despite the loss of market to LLDPE, the far-too-large capacity additions in China and the Middle East will force a large number of producers to shut down the least efficient operations. To some extent, this trend is already in place; Borealis, LyondellBasell and other producers have applied some of this geographical diversification and scrap-and-rebuild implementation strategy. Others, such as Voridian and Huntsman, have opted for divestiture, exiting the business altogether.

(For the complete marketing research report on LOW-DENSITY POLYETHYLENE RESINS, visit this report’s home page or see p. 580.1310 A of the Chemical Economics Handbook.)

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CEH Product Review Abstract
METHANOL
By Guillermo A. Saade

Over the last two decades, a major shift in regional methanol capacity and production has occurred. Countries with large reserves of natural gas and often limited domestic consumption have built world-scale methanol facilities to attempt to monetize their low-cost natural gas. The largest producing region/country in 2008 was China and it will continue to have the largest production capacity and be the largest producer in 2013.

Another significant factor in methanol supply/demand is that the new mega-methanol plants (1.0–2.0 million metric tons per year) are much larger than existing plants. Thus, they will have reduced fixed costs, as well as greatly reduced natural gas costs because of their strategically located feedstock, giving a significant cost advantage. This will drive down the cost of methanol, and cause major shifts in trade patterns. This cost-competitive position will also make the methanol-to-olefins technology more competitive with existing olefins technologies. Locations for these large new methanol plants are (or will be) Iran, Saudi Arabia, Oman, and Trinidad and Tobago.

While there is growing interest in methanol-to-olefins (MTO) technologies as a result of the large new methanol capacities coming on line, the operational costs are what make MTO attractive, since the capital costs are considerably larger than a traditional olefins cracker. The critical issue in evaluating production economics and the feasibility of building such a complex is securing a long-term supply agreement for inexpensive methanol, in order to offset the very large capital costs associated with MTO plants. Another key factor making MTO economically attractive is a secure source of isolated natural gas feeding the mega-methanol plant.

Research has also been conducted in China for producing light olefins from dimethyl ether and/or methanol using dimethyl ether/methanol-to-olefins (DMTO) technology. Currently, two projects are under development in China using this technology, which additionally are back-integrated with coal gasification methanol plants. These processes offer a way to convert China’s vast coal resources into olefins.

There is also much interest in developing methanol-to-propylene (MTP) technology because of the interest in direct production of propylene (on-purpose) as opposed to producing it as a coproduct of ethylene in steam cracking of various heavy feedstocks.

The following pie chart shows world consumption of methanol:

Worldwide, formaldehyde production is the largest consumer of methanol with more than 34% of world methanol demand in 2008. Demand is driven by the construction industry since formaldehyde is used primarily to produce adhesives for the manufacture of various construction board products. Historically, the major end product has been plywood, but in developed countries, demand is also driven by the expanding use of engineering board products such as OSB (oriented strandboard). These wood composite products require more formaldehyde-based resin per square foot of board than plywood. Demand for formaldehyde is highly dependent on general economic conditions, and, as an example, a slowdown in construction can considerably reduce formaldehyde demand.

The second-largest market for methanol worldwide is methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) with 13% of world methanol demand in 2008. Methanol consumption for MTBE has been on the decline in the United States since 1999, and since 2006, U.S. consumption of MTBE has only been for export markets or for the export-directed gasoline pool. In other regions of the world, especially where lead compounds are currently used to maintain octane levels, some growth for MTBE is still possible. Worldwide, methanol consumption for MTBE has been declining since 2003; an average decline of 1.4% per year worldwide is likely from 2008 to 2013, and very soon, MTBE will no longer be the second-largest world market for methanol.

Overall, world demand for methanol is projected to grow at an average annual rate of 7.8% from 2008 to 2013, with lower growth expected in the industrialized areas of the world where the markets are mature. The largest consumer of methanol in 2013 will be China. As a reflection of its growth potential, it is interesting to note that in spite of its projected methanol capacity in 2013, China will still remain a net importer. Asia (including China, Japan and Other Asia) will account for 56% of consumption in 2013. The second-largest consuming region will be Europe, followed by North America.

(For the complete marketing research report on METHANOL, visit this report’s home page or see p. 674.5000 A of the Chemical Economics Handbook.)

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CEH Marketing Research Report Abstract
PROPYLENE
By Michael T. Devanney

While this report focuses on the supply/demand picture for propylene in chemical uses, a substantial usage of propylene occurs in on-site use in refineries as a component of fuels. The report includes brief discussions of propylene’s fuel markets in each regional consumption section of the report. It provides propylene consumption forecasts to the year 2013 with 2008 as the last base year of actual data and certain capacity estimates as of mid-2009.

Polypropylene production continues to represent more than 60% of total world propylene consumption, ranging from 51% in North America to more than 90% in Africa and the Middle East. Acrylonitrile, propylene oxide, cumene and oxo alcohols each account for 6–8% of global consumption.

The following pie chart shows world consumption of propylene in chemical applications:

In 2008, the value of worldwide production of propylene for chemical uses was roughly 17% higher than that of a year earlier. The revenue value was higher only because of much higher propylene prices worldwide, driven by increasing crude oil values. Actual production of propylene increased by only 0.3% in 2008 versus 2007. The effects of the current severe global economic downturn, which began in late 2008 and seem to be extending well into 2009, have been taken into consideration in the analysis for propylene. Forecasts for 2009, reflecting both a decline in volume of about 1.8% and lower prices, are for a revenue decrease of about 55% from 2008 levels.

World consumption of propylene is forecast to grow at slightly better than global GDP rates over the next five years, even with the impact of the current recession. Growth will be 4.6% per year for propylene, about one-half of a percent higher than ethylene, as has been the case for many years now. Propylene growth is being driven at a faster pace largely because its major use, polypropylene, is growing faster than ethylene’s driving end use, polyethylene.

The recessionary consumption decline in late 2008 through 2009 reflects both a reduction in the pull-through demand and a supply-chain inventory rundown, reminiscent of the downturn in the early 1980s. World petrochemical industries have historically witnessed very few upheavals that combined the effects of both energy volatility and depressed downstream demand. The growth forecast would be even lower, if not bolstered by Asia and its fastest-growing component China, where demand should grow at a 5–6% per year average over 2008–2009. The largest end use in China will be polypropylene, growing at over 7% per year. Results for near-term growth will be particularly dismal in the mature economies of North America, Japan and Western Europe, where market contractions of 3–10% will be felt during 2008–2009.

(For the complete marketing research report on PROPYLENE, visit this report’s home page or see p. 436.0000 A of the Chemical Economics Handbook.)

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PEP Review Abstract
AMMONIA FROM NATURAL GAS BY THE LURGI-CASALE MEGAMMONIA PROCESS
By Victor Y. Wan

Lurgi and Ammonia Casale have disclosed their jointly developed ammonia process technology designed to produce 4,000 metric tons per day of ammonia. The main features of the Lurgi-Casale MEGAMMONIA process are (1) replacing air used in the steam methane reforming steps of a conventional ammonia plant with oxygen, (2) use of Casale axial-radial internals in shift and ammonia synthesis reactors, (3) use of a liquid nitrogen wash instead of methanation, and (4) a high-capacity single train ammonia plant with higher operating pressures.

In view of the benefits of oxygen-blown autothermal reforming employed in recently constructed gas-to-liquids (GTL) units and possible economies of scale for a single-train 4,000 metric ton-per-day ammonia plant, this Review evaluates a speculative SRIC design based roughly on the large-scale ammonia production technology jointly developed by Lurgi and Ammonia Casale which employs an air separation unit (ASU) to supply gaseous oxygen being used as the oxidant for synthesis gas generation and nitrogen for ammonia synthesis that is added in a nitrogen wash unit just upstream of the synthesis gas compressor.

Our work suggests that for a single-train ammonia unit with a capacity of 4,000 metric tons per day, the cost increase associated with the oxygen supply is more than offset by the resultant size reduction in the reforming, CO shift, CO₂ removal and final purification process units due to the smaller, nitrogen-free streams passing through these units made possible by the use of oxygen rather than air in the synthesis generation section of the plant. The absence of inert components in the ammonia synthesis gas stream also improves ammonia synthesis loop design and operation. There are also environmental benefits such as reduced carbon dioxide and NO_x emissions resulting from synthesis gas generation via advanced oxygen-blown autothermal reforming. Overall capital and operating costs are reduced enough to result in a 7% reduction in ammonia production costs.

(For the complete June 2009 Review 2009-10 on AMMONIA FROM NATURAL GAS BY THE LURGI-CASALE MEGAMMONIA PROCESS, visit this report’s home page.)

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PEP Review Abstract
ASAHI KASEI DIPHENYL CARBONATE PROCESS INVOLVING THE PRODUCTION AND USE OF DIBUTYL CARBONATE
By Abe Gelbein

A series of recently published patents and patent applications assigned to Asahi Kasei describes an innovative process for indirectly producing diphenyl carbonate (DPC) from carbon dioxide and phenol. The process involves first the production of di-n-butyl carbonate (DBC) from n-butanol and carbon dioxide mediated by organotin complexes. The DBC is then reacted with phenol under reaction distillation conditions to produce DPC and n-butanol, which is recycled to DBC production. This Review provides detailed descriptions and interpretations of the patent information, creation of a conceptual process flow scheme, results of a process simulation of the scheme, and development of capital and production cost estimates for a 90,000 metric ton-per-year plant. The estimated transfer price for the DPC is about $1.20/lb, a value that is significantly higher than other reported transfer price values for DPC produced using alternative dimethyl carbonate–based methodologies.

(For the complete June 2009 Review 2009-2 on ASAHI KASEI DIPHENYL CARBONATE PROCESS INVOLVING THE PRODUCTION AND USE OF DIBUTYL CARBONATE, visit this report’s home page.)

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PEP Review Abstract
LIQUID PHASE METHANOL
By Sudeep Vaswani

Methanol is an important feedstock for making many other chemicals. It has also been considered as a fuel additive and as a fuel with some success. As oil prices continue to rise, its usage as a fuel alternative will become more viable. Currently, the U.S. methanol market is in a period of oversupply as the global recession has caused demand to decrease. Methanol plants in North America have closed as a result of high production costs and similar events may happen in the global market. As auto manufacturers in the United States and the rest of the world develop next-generation flex-fuel cars, methanol demand may revive if methanol is accepted as a fuel additive in the fuels industry. In any case, being able to lower the manufacturing costs in a methanol plant is going to be of paramount importance as the chemical industry survives through the demand slump.

Methanol is most commonly produced by a multistep process: natural gas or coal gas and steam are reformed in a furnace to produce hydrogen and carbon oxides; then, hydrogen and carbon oxides react under pressure in a gas-phase reactor in the presence of a catalyst to produce methanol. Crude methanol as produced is purified by fractional distillation. While gas-phase methanol reactors are used in almost all commercial plants, a liquid-phase methanol synthesis process was successfully demonstrated by Air Products and Chemicals in partnership with the U.S. Department of Energy. The liquid-phase methanol process offers some benefits compared with the gas-phase process including the ability to process syngas rich in CO and CO₂ content, excellent reactor thermal management, and the ability to add and withdraw catalyst from the system without the necessity of a shutdown.

In this Review, we examine the technology and economics of methanol production starting from natural gas as a raw material. Syngas is generated from natural gas using the commercially available ICI/Synetix process as a front end. Liquid-phase methanol technology is then utilized to synthesize methanol followed by methanol purification. We also present a conceptual design and economic evaluation of a 5,000 metric ton-per-day methanol plant using integrated ICI/Synetix syngas generation technology and liquid-phase methanol synthesis technology.

(For the complete June 2009 Review 2009-15 on LIQUID PHASE METHANOL, visit this report’s home page.)

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SCUP Report Abstract
ANTIOXIDANTS
By Fred Hajduk with Stefan Müller, Vivien Yang and Kazuteru Yokose

The rubber-processing industry, the plastics industry, the fuel and lubricant industry, and the food and feed industry are major consumers of antioxidants. Antioxidants are part of a company’s broader portfolio of additive products designed to serve specific end-use industries. Therefore, antioxidants do not really represent an industry but should be characterized as one component of the larger chemical additives industry.

The principal chemical classes of antioxidants are amines, hindered phenols, phosphites, thioesters and various natural or “natural-based” compounds. These chemicals are used primarily to inhibit the oxidative degradation of unsaturated organic materials such as elastomers, plastics, petroleum-based fuels, and food or animal feed.

Antioxidant producers have been facing a significant shift of their customer base to the Asia Pacific region, particularly to China. At the same time, market competition from China and India is growing rapidly. To serve the growing global customer base, major antioxidant producers have been forming partnerships with local companies to expand local production bases. At present, the Asia Pacific region accounts for over 50% of the global production of antioxidants.

At the time of this report’s publication, the world’s economies are experiencing a downturn in their economic growth. While not all countries are undergoing a recession, those that are not are witnessing a decline from past economic growth rates. Although no one is willing to predict when the world’s economies will return to historical growth patterns, for the purposes of this report, we have assumed that the current downturn will last into the first half of 2010. We have also assumed that the recovery will be relatively slow and that individual economies will not return to their historical growth patterns until the 2012–2013 time period. Additional factors in this report’s forecasts include the migration of manufacturing, such as automotive tires, from developed to developing economies, and the uncertainty in energy prices. Each country’s economic conditions are reflected in the consumption forecasts for that country. These forecasts reflect our chosen cautious approach.

The following pie chart shows consumption of antioxidants by major region:

In 2008, rubber (and latex) applications accounted for 54% of total antioxidant consumption in the major regions, followed by plastics (34%), food and feed (8%) and petroleum fuels (4%) on a volume basis. Substantial differences in end-use distribution are apparent in these major regions.

The five-year consumption growth rate through 2013 is projected to be between 1% and 3% per year. At 7–9% per year, India is expected to grow the fastest, followed by China (4–6% per year). The remaining countries/regions are expected to show little if any growth over the period.

(For the complete July 2009 report on ANTIOXIDANTS, visit this report’s home page or see vol. 4 of Specialty Chemicals—Strategies for Success.)

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